Los Milagros Aqueduct, Augusta Emerita
© Carole Raddato

The Los Milagros Aqueduct (Acueducto de Los Milagros) is an incredibly well-preserved Roman water supply system in Mérida in Spain.

Augusta Emerita was a Roman city in western Spain, modern Mérida, capital of the province of Lusitania. It was a very large city, which needed three aqueducts. The most impressive of these is the Los Milagros aqueduct “Miraculous Aqueduct“.

Comprised of a trio of looming brick arches, the remains of the Los Milagros Aqueduct are a fantastic example of Roman engineering. Only a relatively small stretch of the aqueduct still stands, consisting of 38 arched pillars standing 25 metres (82 ft) high along a course of some 830 metres (2,720 ft).

Together with other sites such as the Roman Circus, the Theatre and the Amphitheatre, the Los Milagros Aqueduct is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

In Roman times, toilets used to be a public and convivial place. An epigram from Martial reveals just how public privies were among the most frequented places in the city for socializing:

“Quod in omnibus Vacerra conclavibus
consumit horas et toto the sedet,
cenaturit Vacerra, non cacaturit.”

which translates to ”In privies Vacerra consumes the hours; the whole day does he sit; Vacerra wants to dine, he does not want to shit” Martial – Book 11 – Epigram 77

To modern readers, this can sound rather shocking as for us, going to the toilet is most definitely a private matter. However, public latrines were perfectly acceptable in Ancient Rome.

Toilets are to be found at many archaeological sites. They vary in size and shape from the large semi-circular one to smaller private one with 10 seats. Here is a small collection of public toilets (foricae) I have photographed at different sites.

Eastern latrine, the public toilets along the central road near the Greath Baths complex, Ancient Dion (Greece)
© Carole Raddato

Forica (latrine) near the Forum Baths, the stone seating is still preserved around the walls, and there is a small basin next to the pillar which separates the two doorways into the room, Ostia Antica (Italy)
© Carole Raddato

The latrine of the palaestra, Philippi (Greece)
© Carole Raddato

The partly restored Public Lavatory at Magnesia ad Maeandrum (Turkey)
© Carole Raddato

The Latrine of the Baths of the Philosopher, Ostia Antica (Italy)
© Carole Raddato

Latrine at Ephesus, (Turkey). They were part of the Scholastica Baths and built in the 1st century AD. They were the public toilets of the city. There was an entrance fee to use them.
© Carole Raddato

Multi-seat latrine in the Hospitalia designed for people of differing social class (the Emperor and his guests had single-seaters), Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli (Italy)
© Carole Raddato

Some latrines were adorned with marble revetments and fountains like the latrine of the Wrestlers Baths at Saint-Romain-en-Gal (France). The walls were decorated with frescoes representing wrestlers and discus-throwers under the supervision of a referee.

Baths of the Wrestlers, luxurious public toilets adorned with fresco representing wrestlers and referee, Saint-Romain-En-Gal (France)
© Carole Raddato

Fresco from the luxurious latrine of the Baths of the Wrestlers depicting wrestlers, 3rd century AD, Saint-Romain-En-Gal (France)
© Carole Raddato

Private toilets have been found in Roman houses and upstairs apartments. Pompeii and Herculaneum have good examples of this (Image Gallery: Pompeii’s Toilets). However if you were not fortunate enough to live in a house with a toilet, you would use a chamber pot.

© Trustees of the British Museum / SANP

Water and sanitation in Imperial Rome (video)

Communal latrines were also present in the camps set up by the Roman armies, particularly on the frontiers of the Roman Empire. Some of the best representation of soldier’s toilets are to be found around Hadrian’s Wall in Britain.

The Latrines at Housesteads Fort (UK). There were wooden seats along the sides, set over a deep channel. A smaller channel in the centre of the building was used for washing sponges.
© Carole Raddato

Water tank, it have been lead lined to hold water for the latrine, Housesteads Fort (UK)
© Carole Raddato

Latrines, Barracks, Isca Augusta (Caerleon, UK)
© Carole Raddato

Reconstruction drawing of the Latrine, Barracks, Isca Augusta (Caerleon, UK). A line of timber seats was set over the drain, and in front was a gutter for the soldiers to wash the sponges which served them for lavatory paper.

Hospital latrine at Segedunum, Hadrian’s Wall (Wallsend UK)
© Carole Raddato

Latrine building at Vindolanda, Hadrian’s Wall (UK). These latrines could have accommodated up to 16 soldiers at a time, seated on timber benches above the sewer channels
© Carole Raddato

Further photos of Roman latrines can be viewed from my image collection on Flickr.

Links and further reading:

Latrinae Et Foricae: Toilets in the Roman World by Barry Hobson

The Sewers of Herculaneum by Caroline Lawrence

Ten Things Romans Used for Toilet Paper by Caroline Lawrence

Ancient Pompeians Could Go Upstairs to Pee LiveScience

Roman Toilets: Their Archaeology and Cultural History edited by Gemma Jansen

Temple of Venus Knidos, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli
© Carole Raddato

It is a small circular temple with doric columns situated on the Temple Valley at Hadrian’s Villa.  It belongs to the latest building phase at the villa, between 133 and 138 AD.

The circular plan of the central structure, the use of the Doric order and the discovery of a fragmentary replica of the celebrated Aphrodite of Knidos led to the association between the Nymphaeum and the Greek tholos in Knidos, where the original statue by Praxiteles was located.

In the center of the round temple, a statue of the goddess stands, this one is a cast. The original is in the museum on the site, the Antiquarium of the Canopus.

The Ludovisi Cnidian Aphrodite, Roman marble copy (torso and thighs) with restored head, arms, legs and drapery support
Palazzo Altemps, Rome

Hadrian’s Wall, Sycamore Gap
© Carole Raddato

An absolutely beautiful spot! This iconic tree was made famous by the film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991). It is one of the best Hadrian’s Wall views and a much photographed point.

The walk from Steel Rigg to Housesteads is my favourite part of the Wall and offers the best views Northumberland has to offer. The scenery and panoramic views are just breathtaking!

From one end of the empire to another!

The Roman empire encircles the Mediterranean Sea, and beyond that, lay its frontiers. By the early 2nd century the empire was stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Black Sea, through the deserts of the Middle East to the Red Sea, and across North Africa.

The “Limes” represents the border line of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent in the 2nd century AD. It stretched over 5,000 km from the Atlantic coast of northern Britain, through Europe to the Black Sea, and from there to the Red Sea and across North Africa to the Atlantic coast. The remains of the Limes today consist of vestiges of built walls, ditches, forts, fortresses, watchtowers and civilian settlements. The two sections of the Limes in Germany, Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall are now all inscribed on the World Heritage List as the “Frontiers of the Roman Empire”. (Source Unesco)

Limes Unesco
© Carole Raddato

The Germanic Limes was a line of frontier fortifications that bounded the ancient Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior and Raetia, dividing the Roman Empire and the unsubdued Germanic tribes from the years 83 (under Domitian) to about 260 AD.

Upper Germanic & Raetian Limes (click to zoom)

The Upper German-Raetian Limes extends to a length of 550 km between the Rhine
in the north-west (near Rheinbrohl) and the Danube in the south-east (near Regensburg). It consisted of about 900 watchtowers, numerous small forts and over 60 large forts for cohorts and alae (Roman allied military units). More a guarded border line than a military defence system, the Limes enabled traffic to be managed, movement of people to be controlled and goods to be traded and taxed.

Rather than expand, secure… the Limes-Emperors (Trajan, Hadrian & Antoninus Pius)
RömerWelt, Rheinbrohl

Having recently moved from London to Frankfurt, I started to explore the Upper Germanic Limes last October. I followed the Limes Road (Limestrasse), a UNESCO World Heritage site encompassing more than 70 towns and villages along the path, with a whole collection of excavation sites, forts, reconstructed towers and museums. Visiting the whole length of the Limes Road will take a few trips. The section covered in this post is from Rheinbrohl (the northern beginning of the Upper Germanic Limes) to Saalburg Roman Fort, north of Frankfurt in Hesse.

WP 1/1 – Reconstructed Limes Watchtower (not historically correct), Rheinbrohl
© Carole Raddato

This reconstructed watchtower  represents the beginning of the Upper Germanic Limes near Rheinbrohl, the so called “caput limitis”. Unfortunately the first stretch of the Limes and the small fort that protected it have been completely destroyed due to gravel extraction. Limes tower 1/1, which was reconstructed in 1973, is situated about 120m southeastern of its original location on the right bank of the river Rhine.

From there the limes ran eastward away from the Rhine in a wide arc across the Rhine valley plain.

WP 1/37 – Reconstructed two-floored Limes Watchtower (not historically correct), near Oberbieber
© Carole Raddato

The watchtowers were located close behind the limes in distinctive positions with lines of sight between each other. WP 1/37 (photo above) was constructed in 1970. Its basement was established in stone building method, its upper floor in framework technology with circulating external gallery. The appearance of the tower does not correspond any longer to today’s state of research. The tower gives however a good idea of its favorable location as point of observation and of the general function of the limes as signal system. Along the limes messages could be passed on from tower to tower with fire, smoke or bugle call up to the next fortlet. (Source: Archäologische Denkmalpflege Koblenz)

WP 1/37 – Reconstruction drawing of a Limes watchtower

From the 2nd century AD, the towers at the limes, first built from wood, were replaced gradually by more rugged stone towers. These usually had a square surface area of 5m by 5m and a height of approximately 10-12m. The entrance was on the first upper floor, which also served as lounge for the 4-8 men strong tower crew. On the ground floor the supplies were probably stored. The guard soldiers in duty stayed on the second upper floor. From the outside gallery they could look out in all directions. The towers were visible far away in the area by their bright colours. (Source and illustration: Archäologische Denkmalpflege Koblenz)

WP 1/68 – Reconstructed three-floored watchtower near Hillscheid
© Carole Raddato

The reconstructed watchtower 1/68 near Hillscheid  appears to be the most accurately reconstructed Roman tower along the Limes Germanicus today. It was completed in 1994 and its interior was designed as a museum. Roman auxiliary forts and watchtowers were painted in white with red grout.

Reconstructed foundations of the Limes watchtower WP 1/71 near Hillscheid, Germany
© Carole Raddato

Not all watchtowers were fully reconstructed. Some were only partly rebuilt from preserved foundations. This is the case of WP 1/71 (photo above), a square stone tower with 5.60 m on each side and a wall thickness of 100 cm.

WP 2/1 – Reconstructed watchtower 2/1 near Bad Ems, the first and oldest tower constructed at the Limes
© Carole Raddato

The replica tower WP 2/1 near Bad Ems was built in 1874 in honor of Emperor William I, who was a regular spa guest in Bad Ems. It is the first and oldest reconstruction of a tower at the Limes. The design was inspired by images of watchtowers on the Trajan’s Column in Rome and no longer corresponds to the current state of research.

Roman watchtower and beacon on the lower Danube frontier – Detail of plate IV: The watch on the Danube (Scene I) – The Reliefs of Trajan’s Column by Conrad Cichorius (wikipedia)

For a long time, only a strip cleared through the woods existed on the Limes, a patrol track monitored by wooden towers. Under Hadrian, the patrol track along the border was additionally secured with a continuous palisade fence: the Limes line was closed (source: The Roman Limes in Europe, Friedrich Lüth). The preserved wall lines and reconstructed palisade you see on the picture below demonstrates this.

Preserved wall lines and reconstructed palisade near watchtower 2/2
© Carole Raddato

While there is no reconstructed milecastle on Hadrian’s Wall (Rome’s Northern Frontier), you can see an authentic reconstruction of a fortlet at Pohl. It has been reconstructed close to its original position, together with a typical watchtower based on recent research.

The reconstructed Roman fortlet, Limeskastell Pohl, Limes Germanicus, Germany
© Carole Raddato

This reconstructed fort is designed as an open air museum with lots of exhibitions and events. It also functions as an information center as well as a central starting point for many activities in the region.

The reconstructed Roman fortlet, Limeskastell Pohl
© Carole Raddato

Limeskastell Pohl, reconstructed barrack room
© Carole Raddato

Reconstructed watchtower (WP 2/23), Limeskastell Pohl
© Carole Raddato

Today, the Holzhausen fort, now located deep down the forest, is amongst the very best preserved fort along the Limes. It was erected under Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD) and survived until the abandonment of the Limes in the years 260 AD. The Cohort II Treverorum served as the fort’s garrison. The name of the 500-man unit has been handed through several building inscriptions.

Limeskastell Holzausen, Porta Dextra
© Carole Raddato

Several stone foundations from the headquarters building (principia) are recognisable in the interior, particularly the semi-circular apsis of the standard’s shrine. The campaign symbols of the troops were stored here, and one also paid tribute to the emperor (photo below).

Limeskastell Holzausen, semi-circular apsis of the standard’s shrine
© Carole Raddato

The Aides, or shrine, at the centre of the office block on the far side of the headquarters building, where the regimental standards were preserved and kept on display, Saalburg Roman Fort
© Carole Raddato

The best representation of the Limes is to be found in Saalburg. There, archaeologists working in the late 1800s unearthed the foundations of a Roman fort and set about restoring it to its former glory.

The Porta Praetoria (Main Gate) with statue of Antoninus Pius and inscription referring to Wilhelm II., Saalburg Roman Fort
© Carole Raddato

Saalburg is a Cohort fort located just North of Frankfurt and is the most completely reconstructed Roman fort in Germany.

Courtyard of the Headquarters building, Saalburg Roman Fort
© Carole Raddato

After 83 A.D. a small wooden castle was built on the site where Saalburg Fort stands today. By 135 AD, the wooden fort was converted into a cohort fort with a crew of about 600 men, protected by a wooden palisade and stone watchtowers.

Porta Principalis Sinistra, Saalburg Roman Fort
© Carole Raddato

Inside the basilica or entrance hall, Saalburg Roman Fort
© Carole Raddato

Behind the entry gate to the right lies the granary (latin horreum) which now serves as a museum. Between the two doors we see the bust of the founder of the Saalburg Museum, Professor Louis Jacobi.

The reconstructed horreum (grain store – granary) now houses the museum, Saalburg Roman Fort
© Carole Raddato

Numerous photos of the Saalburg fort and the museum can be viewed here.

The varied landscapes through which the Limes line passes, and the fascinating Roman heritage offer great walking and cycling opportunities. Much of the line of the Limes is followed by the Limestrasse road which links many fine traditional towns and villages and there are many signposted footpaths and cycleways.

Signposted footpaths deep down the forest
© Carole Raddato

I cannot wait to explore the Limes again next week  (see itinerary map here)

Me along the Limes road (October 2012)
© Alan Robert

Further photos of the Limes Germanicus can be viewed from my image collection on Flickr.

Links and further reading:

German Limes Commission

Deutsche Limesstraße

Frontiers of the Roman Empire (youtube channel)

Hadrian, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome
© Carole Raddato

Inv. no. 124.491
Termini portrait sculptural type.

This fragmentary bust was discovered in 1941 during work on the main train station (Stazione Termini) hence known now as the “Stazione Termini” type (eight similar examples are known).

Ephesus is teeming with cats. I happen to love cats and this is my best cat shot from Ephesus.

The reason I chose this photo today is that I just caught Cat Scratch Disease, an infection following the scratch of a cat, not from Ephesus, but from the ancient city of Olympos in Lycia. I never knew such a disease existed, although I have had many cats. For someone who is never ill and so fond of cats, I find it amusing that I caught this disease!

Time to worship Bastet… miaow!

© Carole Raddato

Column of Trajan, Carrara marble, completed in 113 AD, Trajan’s Forum, Rome

On this day (26th May) 107 AD, Trajan celebrates a triumph for his victories over the Dacians. The celebrations lasted 123 days and entertained the populace with a vast display of gladiators and animals.

In Rome, Apollodorus of Damascus designed and built in the huge forum a sculpted column depicting the history of both Dacian wars. The structure is  precisely 100 Roman feet high (35 meters high including the pedestal). The 190-metre (625 ft) frieze winds around the shaft 23 times. Inside the shaft, a spiral staircase of 185 stairs provides access to a viewing platform at the top.

Further pictures of the Column of Trajan can be viewed from my image collection on Flickr.

Last November, I visited the Römerhalle at Bad Kreuznach, Germany. It is a museum that displays finds from a late 2nd century Roman villa as well as other Roman finds from the district of Bad Kreuznach.

Around 58 BC, the Rhineland-Palatinate region became part of the Roman Empire, with a Roman vicus named Cruciniacum, forming a supply station between Mainz (Mogontiacum) and Trier (Augusta Treverorum). During the 2nd century AD, a gigantic palace (81 m × 71 m or 266 ft × 233 ft) was built there, with a peristyle, and 50 rooms on the ground floor alone.

The magnificent Villa Rustica (countryside villa) encompassing a total area of 6000 square metres, was composed of four winged buildings enclosing an inner courtyard garden surrounded with columns. Conforming to its position on a hillside, the Villa incorporated several storeys in some areas. The ground floor alone contained more than 50 rooms beautifully decorated with stucco, marble work and wall paintings. Villas of this size and style are more typically known from England, France and the Mediterranean area.

Model of the Roman Villa, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

The most important part of the exhibition hall are the two mosaics dating back to the 3rd century AD (no longer in its original location). The first one, depicting gladiators and amphitheatre related scenes, the Gladiator Mosaic is amazingly well preserved.

Gladiator mosaic floor, 3rd century AD, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

Found during construction work in 1893, the 58 square metre mosaic floor quickly became one of the leading attractions of the health-resort city. The mosaic shows a large area resulting in 13 different images depicting gladiators fighting each other, gladiators fighting animals and animals against each other.

Detail of Gladiator mosaic, a Thraex (left) fighting a Murmillo (right), Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

In this scene (photo above), a Thraex (left) is fighting a Murmillo (right). The Thraex wears a broad-rimmed helmet that enclosed the entire head, a small square-shaped shield (parmula), and two thigh-length greaves. His weapon is the Thracian curved sword.  Thraeces were introduced as replacements for the Gauls after Gaul made peace with Rome. They commonly fought Murmillones or Hoplomachi. The murmillo wears a helmet with a stylised fish on the crest, as well as an arm guard (manica), a loincloth and belt, a gaiter on his right leg, thick wrappings covering the tops of his feet, and a very short greave. The murmillo carris a gladius and a tall, elongated shield in the legionary style. Murmillones were typically paired with Thraecis, but occasionally with the similar hoplomachi.

Detail of the Gladiator mosaic floor, a Hoplomachus fighting a Thraex, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

In this scene (photo above), a Thraex (left) is fighting a hoplomachus who can be identified by his lance and dagger.

Detail of Gladiator mosaic, a Secutor (left) fighting a Retiarus (right), Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

Detail of Gladiator mosaic, two Eques fighting equipped with lance, sword and the traditional small round shield, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

In this scene, two Eques are fighting against each other. Like the provocator, the evidence is that eques only ever fought another eques. They began to fight on horseback and were the first to compete in the day’s schedule of gladiatorial games. In pictorial representations they are mostly represented in the final phase of the struggle, after they dismounted and continued to fight on foot with their short sword (gladius), a 27 inch short straight sword.

Detail of the Gladiator mosaic floor, a Venator fighting a bear, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

In this image (photo above), a Venator is fighting a bear. The Venatores fought in Venationes, or hunting shows, which were shown in a variety of different formats. Herds of wild animals were let loose into the arena and were slaughtered by the Venatores. Venationes were scheduled as morning events at the Roman Colosseum and were trained at the Ludus Matutinus (morning school).

Detail of the Gladiator mosaic floor, a Venator fighting a leopard, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

Here a venator is fighting a leopard. The traffic in wild animals for the amphitheatre reduced or exterminated many species within and beyond the empire. Already in 50 B.C., Cicero, in his letters to Marcus Caelius Rufus, reports the scarcity of pantheras Graecas, a creature that Roman appetite seems to have exhausted altogether.

Detail of the Gladiator mosaic floor depicting an animal fight, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

During the games held to celebrate the inauguration of the Colosseum in Rome, the emperor Titus arranged to have 9,000 tame and wild animals of various kinds slaughtered in the arena. The spectacle went on for 100 days. Trajan surpassed this record when, in order to celebrate his victory over the Dacians, he held games lasting 123 days, during which time 5,000 pairs of gladiators fought and some 11,000 animals were killed in the arena, according to Dio Cassius (68.15.1). This was the largest contest of gladiators in Rome.

For Hadrian’s forty-third birthday, on 24th January 119, a gladiatorial show was put on which lasted for six successive days, with a thousand wild beasts being slaughtered, among them one hundred lions and one hundred lionesses. (Source: Hadrian: The Restless Emperor by Anthony R Birley). Also Hadrian frequently attended gladiatorial shows (Historia Augusta).

Gladiator mosaic floor, 3rd century AD, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

The lively picture of the central panel of the Gladiator mosaic depicts a scene in an amphitheatre with Venatores fighting animals.

Central panel of the Gladiator mosaic floor, 3rd century AD, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

The hypocaust heating system of the villa is completely preserved under the mosaic. A walk through the understructure of the mosaic provides a view of the underside of the floor and reveals the principle and functionality of the Roman hypocaust system.

The underfloor heating system (hypocaust) undernearth the Gladiator mosaic, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

The second mosaic, the Oceanus Mosaic, showing the Sea God Oceanus and ocean scenes, was accidentally discovered in 1966, after which the villa was finally systematically excavated. The Oceanus Mosaic had a fountain in its center, which has been reconstructed. From other finds it has been deducted that this floor was part of the triclinium of the villa.

The Oceanus mosaic, 3rd century AD, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

Discovered in 1968, the 68 square metre Oceanus mosaic was situated in the main presentation room of the Villa. A marble encased water basin with a two-handled bowl and a half round triclinium (couch) in the apse could be reconstructed from the excavation finds. The mosaic is composed of various different scenes: between Mediterranean architecture, harbors and ship depictions and varied sea creatures are splashing about. The apse depicts Oceanus, ruler of all the seas, flanked by two horse-headed fish creatures. The remains of a consular inscription makes possible a dating of the floor to 234 AD.

The Oceanus mosaic, 3rd century AD, Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

Further photos of the Römerhalle can be viewed from my image collection on Flickr.

This marvelous little museum can be easily reached by train from Frankfurt am Main and Mainz (trains run every 30 minutes). Bad Kreuznach is also a spa city, located on the Nahe river, and is widely regarded as one of the loveliest spa and health resorts in Germany. The town and surrounding areas are renowned both nationally and internationally for its wines, especially Riesling, Silvaner and Müller-Thurgau grape varieties.

Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach
© Carole Raddato

Useful Information
Address : Hüffelsheimer Straße 11 D – 55545 Bad Kreuznach
Phone : 06719207782
E-mail : info@museen-bad-kreuznach.de
Website : http://www.museen-bad-kreuznach.de
Prices : 3.5 € (child : 2.5 €)
Opening hours: Tuesday to Sunday, 10 to 17 clock (closed in February)

Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach, Germany

In addition to his great provincial travels and skills of leadership, Hadrian was an unrivaled patron of the arts. He was considered an expert in many fields, such as arithmetic, geometry, architecture, painting, poetry and music. Hadrian surrounded himself with men of genius: the poet and satirist Juvenal, the philosophers Epictetus and Heliodorus, the historians Tacitus, Suetonius and Arrian and writers Pliny the Younger, Pausanias and Plutarch but also Mesomedes, a Greek lyric poet and composer.

Mesomedes, of Cretian birth, was a freedman and court poet of Hadrian. He wrote paens glorifying his patron and his policies, such as the “Hymn to Nemesis”. The hymn is one of four which preserve the ancient musical notation written over the text; the other three are ”Invocation of the Muse”, “Hymn to the Sun”, and “Invocation of Calliope and Apollo”. A total of 15 poems by Mesomedes are known. They were preserved through Alexandrian and later Byzantine sources.

‘Hymn to Nemesis’ an English translation with Greek original and audio recording in Greek

Links and further reading: Wikipedia, Find A Grave

© Carole Raddato

The classical features of the face and body as well as the thick, curly hair are sensually rounded and smoothly formed. A strange melancholy pervades the completely impassive face.

While on a four day trip to explore the Limes Germanicus, I ended up visiting the Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Museum of antiquities) and the Glyptothek in Munich due to poor weather conditions.

The Museum of antiquities in Munich is currently hosting the “Immortal – Gods of Greece” exhibition. This one-year-round exhibition (now extended to 19 January 2014) presents a vibrant range of divine images and numerous artefacts, which were taken from the museum’s rich collections as well as national and international loans.

“Die Unsterblichen. Götter Griechenlands” 20.07.2012 – 19.01.2014
Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich

Portrayals of the gods range from colossal idols made of gold and ivory to unpretentious figurines made of clay. In ancient Greece, most of the portrayals of the Greek gods are found on vessels that were not intended for religious purposes. The exhibition shows many artefacts from ancient Greece, all focused and inspired by the Olympian Gods as well as other lesser known gods, mythical heroes and demons. I was particularly attracted by the large collection of Roman oil-lamps exhibited. It is rare to see such a concentration of oil-lamps depicting gods and goddesses.

Oil lamps were one of the most common household items of ancient times. They could be decorated with scenes ranging from everyday activities to entertainment, such as gladiatorial scenes, to depictions of common myths. Oil lamps depicting gods and goddesses were very popular. They might have showed which gods were worshipped in the household.

After the Romans came into contact with the Greeks in the 6th century BC, the identities of the Roman and the Greek gods tended to meld into Greco-Roman combinations. Each of the Greek gods had his Roman equivalent although their character and attributes were slightly modified to suit the firmly established Roman culture.

The Greco-Roman Gods

Jupiter (Zeus)

Terracota oil lamp with depiction of Jupiter, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

The sovereign of all the gods was Jupiter whose main temple was dedicated on the Capitoline Hill in Rome in 509 BC. Like his Greek counterpart (Zeus), his emblem was the eagle and his attributes a sceptre and lighting. The mighty bird served also as the standard of the Roman legions.

Juno (Hera)

Terracota oil lamp, Juno and her cuckoo, 2nd-3rd century AD
© Carole Raddato

Juno was the wife of Jupiter, just as Hera was the wife of Zeus. The Italian Juno was the counterpart of the Greek Hera. However the goddess had greater importance in Rome than in Greece. In addition to her role as the protectress of marriage, she also acted as protectress of the local community. In early Rome, she went by the name of Regina (“queen”), testifying to her supremacy over all the other goddesses and the heavens, which she governed alongside her husband.

Neptune (Poseidon)

Terracotta oil lamp depicting a dolphin carrying a trident, probably related to Neptune, 1st-2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

The Etruscans worshipped Nethuns as the god of fresh and sea water, the Romans venerated Neptune. In Rome, his temple was found on the Fields of Mars, near the Circus Flaminius.

Apollo

Terracotta oil lamp depicting Apollo seated with tripod, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

Apollo was the god of poetry and music. He went by the same name in Greek and Latin, because the Romans had no equivalent to this god in their own religion and they knew of him only by the Greeks. The Roman Apollo therefore had all the attributes of the Greek Apollo but for the Romans, Apollo was above all a god who cleanses sickness and blood guilt. On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BC, Apollo’s first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the “Apollinare”.

Diana (Artemis)

Roman oil lamp depicting the goddess Diana as a huntress, 2nd-3rd century AD
© Carole Raddato

The Roman Diana was initially the goddess of the moon and of fertility. She had a very ancient temple in Rome on the Mount Aventinus, and her feast day was August the 13th. She protected girls and women. Later, like the Greek Artemis, she became the goddess of hunting.

Venus (Aphrodite)

Terracotta oil lamp depicting Venus, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

The Etruscan worshipped Venos, the Romans Venus. She was known as the goddess of love well before being identified with the Greek Aphrodite. In Roman art, Venus and Mars were the classical lovers and married couple. They represented the progenitors of the Roman people and of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Venus was honored in April, the month that marks the beginning of spring.

Mars (Ares)

Terracotta oil lamp depicting Mars in chariot, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

The Romans honored Mars as their god of war. He was of unmistakably higher rank than the Greek god Ares who should not be confused with him. After Jupiter, he was celebrated as the most significant Roman god, and he was the most prominent of the military gods in the religion of the Roman army. Furthermore, Mars was also the god of vegetation and patron of the Roman senate.

Minerva (Athena)

Minerva, terracotta Roman oil lamp 1st cent. AD
© Carole Raddato

Minerva, assimilated to the Greek goddess Athena, was the Roman goddess of wisdom and sponsor of arts, trade, and defense. Together with Jupiter and Juno she forms the Capitoline Triad. Her cult was spread across the entire Empire. The goddess was the guardian of craftsmanship and commerce. Her attributes were the owl, the shield and the olive branch.

Oil lamp depicting Athena/Minerva, 1st century AD
© Carole Raddato

In Rome, Minerva was worshipped on the Capitoline Hill as one of the Capitoline Triad along with Jupiter and Juno, at the Temple of Minerva Medica, and at the “Delubrum Minervae” a temple founded around 50 BC by Pompey.

The Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva), Roman oil lamp terracotta, 1st century AD
© Carole Raddato

The Heroes

Hercules (Heracles)

Clay oil lamp depicting Hercules defeating the Stymphalian Birds (the Sixth Labour)
© Carole Raddato

Hercules is the Roman name for the Greek divine hero Heracles, who was the son of Zeus (Roman equivalent Jupiter) and the mortal Alcmene. In ancient Roman religion and myth, Hercules was venerated as a divinised hero and incorporated into the legends of Rome’s founding. The Romans adapted the iconography of Heracles into their own literature and art, but the hero developed distinctly Roman characteristics. In Rome, his precinct was in the busy commercial area of the cattle market (Forum Boarium) and his altar was the Ara Maxima (Greatest Altar).

Castor and Pollux

Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri), terracotta Roman oil lamp 1st century AD
© Carole Raddato

Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri), sons of Jupiter (Zeus) and Leda are depicted here. Their helmets crowed by a star suggest their identification with the Constellation Gemini. The Dioscuri were worshipped by the Greeks and Romans alike; there were temples to the twins in Athens, such as the Anakeion, and Rome  (located in the Roman Forum), as well as shrines in many other locations in the ancient world.

Leda and the swan, terracotta Roman oil lamp 1st century AD
© Carole Raddato

The New Gods

Serapis

Terracotta oil lamp depicting Serapis above an eagle spreading its wings, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

Serapis was a new god. Making his appearance in the Hellenistic period he had characteristics of the Greco-Roman father-figure gods Zeus, Hades and Helios, as well as the ancient Egyptian Osiris. In Roman times, he was revered throughout the empire. At Rome, Serapis was worshiped in the Iseum Campense, the sanctuary of Isis built during the Second Triumvirate in the Campus Martius. The Roman cults of Isis and Serapis gained in popularity late in the 1st century when Vespasian experienced events he attributed to their miraculous agency while he was in Alexandria. Serapis’ attribute was a corn measure as a headdress, a reference to the fertility of Egypt.

Isis

Clay oil lamp depicting Isis, from Egypt, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

Isis was a powerful Egyptian goddess whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. During the reign of Caligula, the Navigium Isidis, an annual ancient Roman religious festival in honor of the goddess Isis, was established while Hadrian decorated his villa with Isiac scenes.

The Punishment of Evildoers

Actaeon

Terracotta oil lamp depicting Actaeon torn apart by dogs, 1st century AD
© Carole Raddato

The Greek myth of Diana and Actaeon can be found within Ovid’s Metamorphoses. The tale recounts the unfortunate fate of a young hunter named Actaeon, who was the grandson of Cadmus, and his encounter with chaste Diana, goddess of the hunt. The hunter became the hunted; he was transformed into a stag, and his raging hounds, struck with a ‘wolf’s frenzy’ (Lyssa in Greek or Furor in Latin), tore him apart as they would a stag.

Orion

Terracotta oil lamp depicting a blinded Orion and Artemis
© Carole Raddato

Orion was a handsome giant gifted with the ability to walk on water by his father Poseidon. He served King Oinopion of Khios as huntsman for a time, but was blinded and exiled from the island after raping the king’s daughter Merope. After this the giant retired to the island of Delos or Krete and became a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis.

Nature Deities and Demons

Faunus (Pan)

Clay oil lamp depicting Pan (Faunus) the god of shepherds and flocks, 1st-2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

Pan, the god of shepherds, is part human and part goat. The Romans identified with Pan their own god Inuus, and sometimes also Faunus. In works of art Pan/Faunus is represented as a voluptuous and sensual being, with horns, puck-nose, and goat’s feet, sometimes in the act of dancing, and sometimes playing his pan-pipes.

Sol (Helios)

Clay oil lamp depicting Sol, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

Helios was the personification of the Sun in Greek mythology.  The equivalent of Helios in Roman mythology was Sol, specifically Sol Invictus.

Scylla

Oil lamp depicting Scylla a monstrous sea goddess, 2nd century AD
© Carole Raddato

Scylla was a monstrous sea goddess who haunted the rocks of certain narrow strait opposite the whirlpool daemon Charybdis. In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Book XIV, she was said to have been originally human in appearance but transformed out of jealousy through the witchcraft of Circe into her fearful shape.

Further photos from the Staatliche Antikensammlungen and the exhibition can be viewed from my image collection on Flickr.

Sources:

* The Immortals – The Greek gods (exhibition booklet) © Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek München 2012

* Roman Mythology by Joel Schmidt

The Temple of Venus and Roma designed by the emperor Hadrian
© Carole Raddato

The Temple of Venus and Roma (Latin: Templum Veneris et Romae) was the largest temple in Ancient Rome. It was located at the far east side of the Forum Romanum, near the Colosseum. It was dedicated to the goddesses Venus Felix (Venus the Bringer of Good Fortune) and Roma Aeterna (Eternal Rome). The designer was emperor Hadrian. Construction on the temple began in 121. Although the temple was officially inaugurated by Hadrian in 135, the building was finished in 141 under Antoninus Pius.

The building measured 110 m in length and 53 m in width. It was placed on a stage measuring 145 m in length and 100 m in width. The temple itself consisted of two main chambers (cellae), where the cult statue of the god was, in this case the statues of Venus, the goddess of love, and Roma, the goddess of Rome, both of them seated on a throne. The cellae were placed symmetrically back-to-back. Roma’s cella was faced west, looking out over the Forum Romanum, Venus’ cella was faced east, looking out over the Colosseum. Each cella had its own line of four columns at the entrance.

As an additional clever subtlety by Hadrian, Venus also represented love (Amor in Latin), and “AMOR” is “ROMA” spelled backwards. Thus, placing the two divinities of Venus and Rome back-to-back in a single temple creates a further symmetry with the back-to-back symmetry of their names as well.

When Hadrian asked Apollodorus, the most celebrated architect of the time, to comment on his design, he allegedly replied that the temple was too low and the statues of the gods too tall for the space they occupied. “‘For now,’” he said, ‘if the goddesses wish to get up and go out, they will be unable to do so’” (Dio, LXIX.4.1-5). Hadrian was so exasperated at the remark that he banished Apollodorus and later may have had him put to death.

© Carole Raddato

Mixed portraiture type: Baiae & Imperatori 32.

The photograph was taken during the exhibition “L’image et le pouvoir. Le siècle des Antonins” (Image and power. The age of the Antonines) at the Musée Saint-Raymond in Toulouse (France).

The head is currently in storage at the Louvre, Paris.

Inv. Ma 1187

“O Appian way, which Caesar consecrates under the form of Hercules, and renders the most celebrated of Italian roads…” Martial, Spectacula 9.101

Via Appia, near the Villa dei Quintili
© Carole Raddato

Via Appia Antica, ancient Rome’s “Queen of Roads”, was once one of the world’s most important roads. It was originally built in 312 BC by Appius Claudius Caecus, the then-censor of Rome, who began and completed the first section as a military road to the south. The Via Appia, would eventually run all the way from Rome to the port city of Brindisi.

The Via Appia Antica, is now part of a nature and archaeological park, the Parco Regionale dell’Appia Antica, and makes a lovely day out away from the bustling city and major tourist attractions.

I started my walk at Circus Maximus, the original starting point of the Via Appia, passing along the Baths of Caracalla, later the Aurelian Walls and the Porta San Sebastiano where the Museum of the Walls (Museo delle Mura) is located.

The Porta Appia (now Porta San Sebastiano), the most imposing of the gates in the Aurelian walls, built in the last quarter of 3rd century
© Carole Raddato

Just outside the Porta Appia, on the right, is the first milestone column of the Via Appia “Prima Colonna Miliaria”, commemorating the restoration made by Vespasian in 76 AD and by Nerva in 97 AD. This milestone is a replica. The roman numeral I in the top band indicates that it is one mile away from the Milliarium Aureum, the point where all roads were supposed to begin.

Prima Colonna Miliaria (replica), a milestone on the Via Appia, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

From the museum, I made my way down the Via Appia Antica to the Circus of Maxentius. The first part of the road is not exactly pedestrian friendly. There are no sidewalks along the first 2.5 km of the Via Appia and the continuous traffic can be dangerous.

To visit on foot the best preserved stretch of the Appian Way, you should start your journey from Circus of Maxentius: board the 118 bus from outside Circo Massimo Metro Station or outside the Baths Of Caracalla (more info here How To Visit The Appian Way).

The Circus of Maxentius, situated between the second and third milestone, is the best preserved of all Roman circuses and second in size only to the Circus Maximus. It is part of a complex of buildings erected by emperor Maxentius between AD 306 and 312.

Circus of Maxentius, the towers and starting gates, erected between 306-312 AD
© Carole Raddato

These towers would have contained a mechanism for raising the starting gates to allow the chariots to race down the track.

Circus of Maxentius, the Spina, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

The “spina”, the barrier running down the middle of the 90 meters track, is exactly 1000 Roman feet (296 m) long, and would have been cased in marble during the glory days of the circus. The circus is believed to have had a spectator capacity of around 10.000 people.

The imperial box, the remains of which are identifiable, was situated in the usual fashion to give the most dramatic views of the race.

Circus of Maxentius, the imperial lodge, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Just past the Circus of Maxentius lies the well-preserved and imposing tomb of Cecilia Metella, a Roman noblewoman. Thanks to the inscription still preserved, we know that she was the daughter of Quintus Caecilius Metellus, consul in 69 BC; her husband was Marcus Licinius Crassus, who was the elder son of the famous Marcus Crassus.

Mausoleum of Caecilia Metella, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

The mausoleum was built at the third milestone of the Appian Way in the years 30-20 BC atop a quadrangular base consisting of a cylindrical body 11 meters in height, with a diameter of 29 meters. Today the summit of the mausoleum is surmounted by fortifications added during the medieval period. By looking at the cylindrical body, about halfway up, we can see the inscription facing the Appian Way. It reads: CAECILIAE / Q. CRETICI F. / METELLAE CRASSI, or “To Caecilia Metella, daughter of Quintus Creticus, [and wife] of Crassus”.

Funerary inscription on the Mausoleum of Caecilia Metella
© Carole Raddato

About 500 meters away lies the recently excavated archaeological site of Capo di Bove. It contains the thermal baths of a vast property owned in the 2nd century AD by Herodes Atticus (a Greek aristocrat and tutor of future emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus) and his wife Annia Regilla. They both controlled a large area of land around the third milestone of the Appian Way.

Baths of Herodes Atticus (Capo di Bove), built in the 2nd century AD on the fourth milestone of the Appian Way
© Carole Raddato

The stretch between Copo di Bove and milestone VII is practically reserved to pedestrians and is charactised by tower tombs, temple-style tombs and round mausoleums.

A well-preserved stretch of the Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

The structures have been reduced to strange geometric forms due to erosion but also due to humans, who long ago, removed the revetments materials, the marbles and travertine.

Here is a selection of pictures of the best preserved monuments along the Via Appia Antica from milestone III to milestone VI.

MILESTONE III

Torre di Capo di Bove (towerlike tomb)
© Carole Raddato

The reconstructed brickwork tomb of M. Servilius Quartus
© Carole Raddato

Round mausoleum with square base, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

MILESTONE IV

Tomb of the children of Sextus Pompeus Justus, Via Appia. The large metrical inscription recalls the premature deaths of the two sons, from the point of view of the desperate father.
© Carole Raddato

The reconstructed tomb of Tiberio Claudio Secondino, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

A stretch of the Via Appia and the tomb of Gaius Rabirius Postumus Libertus and family, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Family portrait (a married couple making the dextrarum iunctio and their children at their sides) in relief of the tomb of the Frontispiece, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

A stretch of the Via Appia between milestone IV and V
© Carole Raddato

MILESTONE V

A stretch of the Via Appia at milestone V and a temple sepulcher, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Two temple sepulchers built in bricks, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

A stretch of the Via Appia at milestone V and a round mausoleum with medieval tower, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Tumulus of the Orazi with tower, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Tomb in the form of a pyramid, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Towards the end of milestone V lies the Villa of the Quintili. It is the largest villa of the ancient Roman suburbs (villa suburbana). Its lands stretched between the Via Appia and the Via Latina (now Via Appia Nuova where the entry of the site is located). It belonged to the brothers Sextus Quintilain Condiamus and Sextus Quintilian Valerian Maximus, both appointed consuls in 151 A.D. They were however put to death by the emperor Commodus in 182 A.D. on the accusation of conspiracy. The true motive was to confiscate all their property, including their suburban villa, which became Commodus’ playground.

The nymphaeum of the Quintili Villa which served as the entrance, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Commodus enlarged and enriched the villa, and subsequent emperors continued to use it through the late third century.

The large semicircular exedra, Villa of the Quintili
© Carole Raddato

The Bath house of the Villa of the Quintili, the caldarium (right) and the frigidarium (left)
© Carole Raddato

MILESTONE VI

Casal Rotondo, the impressive cylindrical mausoleum attributed to Consul Messala Corvinus, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

Torre Selce and a stretch of the Via Appia beyond milestone VI, Via Appia
© Carole Raddato

The best way to plan your journey along the Appian Way is to visit the official website of the Park of the Appia Antica where you can find information on how to get there, opening times of the monuments, museums and catacombs. You can also download maps and ready made itineraries on foot or by bike. You could easily spend a whole day there so you should start your journey early. Furthermore it is a good idea to collect a map from the Visitor Centre at the very beginning of the road or at the shop of the Catacomb of San Sebastiano (facing the Circus of Maxentius). Alternatively you can use my own Google map:

The road is attractive and atmospheric, especially as you reach the countryside. A long walk along the Appian Way is an amazing experience and I highly recommend it to anyone who has the will and the stamina to do it.

Further photos from the Via Appia and its monuments can be viewed from my image collection on Flickr.

Appian Way video

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Recommended books:

The Appian Way: From Its Foundation to the Middle Ages (Getty Trust Publications: J. Paul Getty Museum)

Rome (an Oxford Archaeological Guide)

Statue of Hadrian from Troia IX, found in the Odeon, Troy (Ilium), Canakkale Museum Turkey
© Carole Raddato

The emperor Hadrian visited Ilium (Troy) in 124 AD. In 1993, archaeologists discovered a larger-than-life cuirassed statue of Hadrian in the Odeon. Serving as a public meeting place and concert-hall, this civic building, dating from the time of Augustus, was extensively renovated by Hadrian and perhaps served as a place to present his own poem (epigram) about Hector.

Further reading: A Hadrianic Theater at Ilion (Troy): a Paradigm Shift for Roman Building Practice and Its Aesthetic Aftermath

Roman theatre, Augusta Raurica
© Carole Raddato

Last week, I was fortunate enough to visit the ancient Roman city of Augusta Raurica, the Roman town on the river Rhine at Augst (Switzerland). 2000 years ago, Roman army veterans and local Celts established a large town there. At that time Augusta Raurica was located on the edge of the Roman Empire on the border with Germania. Gradually, the neighbouring Germanic regions on the other side of the Rhine were also conquered. This meant that Augusta Raurica came to be in the hinterland, where it was protected from war and skirmishes, and blossomed into an important Roman town.

The ruins at Augusta Raurica have been a popular tourist destination for hundreds of years. The Roman theatre is the best preserved ancient building in Augst. Three different theatre buildings replaced each other where the ruins of the theatre stand now. The remains that survive today were from the last construction. It was used between 180 and 280 AD, after which it served as a quarry and slowly fell into ruins. The theatre had three tiers and could seat 10,000 people. Today 2,000 visitors can be seated on the reconstructed seats.

Official website

Source: A short guide to Augusta Raurica © 2010 Augusta Raurica

On this day (July, 9) in 118 A.D., Hadrian entered the city of Rome, eleven months after his succession to Trajan.

RIC 554 Dupondius, 118 A.D.
Obv: IMP CAESAR TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVG
Rad. r., dr. l. s.
Rev: ADVENTVS AVG
Roma, helmeted, seated r. on cuirass, holding spear in l. hand, clasping r. hands with Hadrian who stands l., togate.

Source

Hadrian’s arrival in Rome was overshadowed by the execution of four respected senators, despite his promise not to execute members of the Senate. As a consequence, Hadrian focused on measures to increase his popularity with the plebs by cancelling the public debt worth 900 million sestertii. The records of these debts were publicly burned in the Forum Trajanum, an event which gained him public favor (see the burning of the tax debts tablet on the Plutei of Trajan and on this sestertius of Hadrian).

“Moreover, he [Hadrian] used every means of gaining popularity. He remitted to private debtors in Rome and in Italy immense sums of money owed to the privy-purse, and in the provinces he remitted large amounts of arrears; and he ordered the promissory notes to be burned in the Forum of the Deified Trajan, in order that the general sense of security might thereby be increased. He gave orders that the property of condemned persons should not accrue to the privy-purse, and in each case deposited the whole amount in the public treasury. He made additional appropriations for the children to whom Trajan had allotted grants of money.”

Historia Augusta, Hadrian (I.7.5-8)

On this day ante diem VI idus quinctilias (July, 10th) in 138 A.D., Hadrian died after a heart failure at Baiae on the Bay of Naples.

He lived 62 years, 5 months, 17 days. He reigned for 20 years, 11 months.

Bust of Hadrian, 135-138 AD, from Itálica, Archaeological Museum, Seville
© Carole Raddato

Hadrian spent the last moments of his life dictating verses addressed to his soul. According to the Historia Augusta, Hadrian composed the following poem shortly before his death:

Animula, vagula, blandula
Hospes comesque corporis
Quae nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula,
Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos.

—P. Aelius Hadrianus Imp. (138)

These five lines defied translation. Nobody knows what they mean, yet there have been forty three translations from the best English-speaking poets. Anthony R. Birley writes: “Few short poems can have generated so many verse translations and such copious academic debate as these five lines—a mere nineteen words—of the dying Hadrian, quoted in the Historia Augusta.” Among all the attemps, here is my favorite translation:

Oh, loving Soul, my own so tenderly,
My life’s companion and my body’s guest,
To what new realms, poor flutterer, wilt thou fly?
Cheerless, disrobed, and cold in thy lone quest,
Hushed thy sweet fancies, mute thy wonted jest.

—D. Johnston

But it is Marguerite Yourcenar’s version that I find the most moving:

“Little soul, gentle and drifting, guest and companion of my body, now you will dwell below in pallid places, stark and bare; there you will abandon your play of yore. But one moment still, let us gaze together on these familiar shores, on these objects which doubtless we shall not see again….Let us try, if we can, to enter into death with open eyes…”

—Marguerite Yourcenar ”Memoirs of Hadrian”

Statue of Marguerite Yourcenar, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli
© Carole Raddato

Hadrian was buried first at Puteoli, near Baiae, on an estate which had once belonged to Cicero. Upon completion of the Tomb of Hadrian in Rome in 139 by his successor Antoninus Pius, Hadrian’s ashes were placed together with those of his wife Vibia Sabina and his first adopted son in his mausoleum.

Mausoleum of Hadrian (Castel S. Angelo), Rome
© Carole Raddato

Hadrian died an unpopular man with the Senate and it was only with the intervention of Antonius, who was later given the title “Pius”, that Hadrian was deified in 139. A great temple in the Campus Martius was built to his memory in the early 140s.

Bust of Hadrian, Musei Capitolini, Rome
© Carole Raddato

For almost 21 years Hadrian had ruled over one of the greatest empires the world had ever seen and the legacy of his reign is still with us today.